EASTERN CAPE AND SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY AS REPORTED IN THE PRINCE ALFRED GUARDS MILITARY MUSEUM IN PORT ELIZABETH
I found the following information in the Prince Alfred Guards Museum
THE SETTLER PERIOD
In 1750, the trek Boers, the first Europeans to come to come overland to the regional of Algoa Bay arrived with their flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. A severe drought in Graaff Reinet forced them to leave their farms in search of grazing. Two years later, an overland expedition from Cape Town led by Ensign Beutler and a party of 37 with 11 wagons arrived at the mouth of the Swartkops River on 13 May 1752.
At that time the jurisdiction of the Dutch East India Company ended at the Gamtoos River and the region of Algoa Bay was virtually unexplored and sparsely inhabited even by the indigenous people. Shipwrecked people reported that they only people they encountered were the Khoi and Xhosa people.
Life for the farmers and early settlers was hard. At the time that Ensign Beutler arrived he reported "there were only one or two houses that were substantially built, the rest were wood and grass shelters"
Perhaps the most significant event to take place in the region in the 19th Century was the arrival of the 1820 settlers from Britain. They brought with them a variety of much needed skills. the English Language, a Legacy of tradition and many settled permanently on the land that was allocated to them. Their influence is still felt today. Fortunately for the ' Settler Programme" Sir Rufane Donkin was acting Governor at the Cape in the absence of Lord Charles Somerset, an autocratic and less sympathetic administrator. Donkin ensured that the problem of Settlement and Transition were efficiently and practically resolved, he was liked and respected by the local inhabitants and he made every effort to create stability. His young wife had recently died in India from Malaria and Donkin name d Port Elizabeth in her honour, erecting a monument to her which stands on the Donkin Reserve close to this museum. In early writings the town was known as Elizabeth Town, and with the development of the harbour, the name changed to Port Elizabeth.
Stability and security are priority requirements when new settlements are established. The first substantial structure to be built on the Bay was a Wooden Blockhouse close to the mouth of the Baakens River. The blockhouse in a pre-fabricated condition was brought from Cape Town by HMS Comet and was manned by 40 Sailors and two six pounders. Also sent was HMS Rattlesnake to act as a guard ship and magazine in which to store ammunition.
There had been recent uprisings on the Border and Britain was at war with France with the building of the blockhouse commenced in July 1799. This fort had a wooden frame and was supported and stabilised with bricks and mortar.
In the same year a more permanent fort was erected on the hill overlloking the Baakens river and named Fort Frederick in honour of the HRH The Duke of York. There was a garrison of about 300 who were housed nearby and the other structures built included a magazine for military stores, a bakehouse, hospital and a smiths and carpenters shop.
Port Elizabeth. as a town was only due to come into existence 20 years later in 1819, just before the arrival of the 1820 settlers
In 1799 during the Napoleonic wars, the French man of war La Preneuse, had an exchange of gunfire with HMS Comet and HMS Rattlesnake, the only "battle" ever to take place in Algoa Bay.
When the colony was ceded to Holland by the British in 1801, in terms of the Peace of Amies, Governor Jansens stationed 150 men of the Waldeck Regiment at Fort Frederick under the command of Captain Lodewyk. A further change was soon to come, in 1806 with the resumption of the Napoleonic wars, Britain repossessed the colony and captain Cuyler was sent from Cape Town to take over the Fort.
At the same time Captain Francis Evatt arrived with the 21st Dragoons and remained there until he took command of the fort with Col Cuyler was appointed Landrost of Uitenhage in 1818. Capt Evatt was to plan an important role in assisting with the arrival of the 1820 settlers.
The arrival of the 1820 settlers established the importance of Port Elizabeth as a costal port and initiated the growth of the town towards city status a few years later.
SIR RUFANE SHAW DONKIN KCB
1772 - 1841
Was acting governor of the Cape Colony for two years during the absence of Lord Charles Somerset in 1820- 1821. He is best known for his friendly and efficient assistance to the 1820 settlers when they arrived in Algoa Bay. And also for the naming of Port Elizabeth after his recently deceased wife.
Sir Rufane was born in Ireland in 1771, the eldest of three children of General Robert Donkin and his wife Mary. He was educated at Westminister School and Cambridge University. He joined his fathers regiment The 11th Foot and served in the West Indies in 1794 and was wounded and captured during the expedition to Ostend in 1798. From 1799 to 1804 he returned to Sicily where he served with the Quartermasters staff and was promoted to Major General in 1811. In 1815 he was appointed to Madras where he commanded the 2nd Field Division of the army under the Marquis of Hastings in the operations against the Mahrattas.
Before leaving for India he had, on 1st May 1815, married Elizabeth Markham, daughter of the Dean of York. Their son David was born on 24th December 1817 and shortly after on 21st August 1818, she died of fever at Meerut. Grief Stricken and ill Sir Rufane was invalided home. but during a brief stop over in Cape Town was asked to remain as acting Governor of the Cape Colony in the absence of the Governor Lord Charles Somerset.
Sir Rufane was well liked by the Settlers and made efforts to integrate them with the local inhabitants. These actions were criticised by Somerset and his son Col Henry Somerset. After returning to England he became a member of Parliament. He remarried to Lady Anna Maria Elliot, daughter of the first Earl of Minto in 1832.
After suffering ill health for some time he committed suicide on the same day as his wife's death 21st August 1841.
History relates that the first people with whom the western navigators came into contact were the Khoikoi, and in the 18th Century they were illustrated in books by Thomas Herbert and Peter Kolbern amoungst others.
The second contact came in 1497 when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape and landed at Mossel Bay where it was recorded that gifts were exchanged with the friendly Khoikoi before continuing on his voyage where he named Natal, Terra do Natal on Christmas day, before sailing on along the east coast of Africa en route to India.
Southern Africa's first contact with the West had been made.
The independence war in Rhodesia, hampered by the imposition of UN sanctions and isolation was assisted by the South African Government. A similar pattern to that which was also to emerge in Angola with South Africa's support for Savimbi against the Cuban / Russian backed MPLA and the civil war in Mozambique. To the north in 1980 the Lancaster House Agreement ended the prolonged Rhodesian Bush War and brought Robert Mugabe to power as president of Zimbabwe, a staunch ally of the ANC and the freedom movements.
The Botha government intensified the war on the Border with greater mobilisation. No longer was this to be Peace Keeping police responsibility all branches of the SANDF became involved.
In the Eastern Cape the unrest in the 1980's dominated the lives of those who lived in the townships and affected most of the general public as well. There were widespread and effective trade boycotts which severely affected businesses in the region, and major foreign companies, including motor manufacturers, left the country. In 1977 the Civil Rights Activist, Steve Biko had died in detention under circumstances which caused widespread public criticism and highlighted security police brutality. Activists were detained and many were ruthlessly killed despite increasing and widespread public outcry by Church leaders, academics, liberal politicians and overseas critics.
Savannah was a top secret operation where event the Government was not informed , it became an embarrassment when the news was broken in the overseas press, and widespread criticism forced South Africa';s withdrawal. The Operation, with its demonstration of superior military power, incidently saved Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA forces, at that time not yet fully an ally of South Africa, from being overwhelmed by MPLA forces. This event provided him with the opportunity to consolidate his support in SE Angola. The 1980's saw South Africa as perhaps the most powerful force in Africa with bases permanently established in the Border region. However world opinion and widespread condemnation of Apartheid with UN Sanctions were beginning to be effective in isolating South Africa.
Criticism of South Africa became commonplace and there was an increasing support for leaders of the Democratic movements. In 1984 Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu, outspoken critic of Apartheid was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Internal unrest was increasing and with the Declaration of a State of Emergency the government called up units of the SANDF to try and stabilise the situation. It was rapidly becoming clear that the repressive measures alone were not working. Demonstrations became more widespread with tragic consequences, such as 20 being killed at Langa in Uitenhage after a Sharpville commemoration. By 1989 Anti Apartheid demonstrations were permitted for the first time and shortly afterwards Walter Sisulu and 7 other long term political prisoners were released from Robben Island.
In 1994 the ANC won the first democratic election with an overwhelming majority and the first Government of National Unity was formed. Nelson Mandela was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 with an international celebration at the Union Buildings in Pretoria.
The new Rainbow Nation had been born.
South Africa however intentionally chose to ignore the implications of the charter in terms of what they considered interference in the internal and domestic affairs and administration of South Africa. and in particular that of the non whites, for whom they felt they had sole responsibility. South West Africa at that time also came within the ambit of South African jurisdiction. The South African Government stance which repeatedly claimed that the charter had no authority, jurisdiction or mandate over Domestic Matters was a contentious difference which generations later contributed to the imposition of sanctions and international isolation of South Africa.
After the war there were great expectations for change, particularly amoungst the Black Middle Class communities and returning black and Coloured ex servicemen. There was a belief that discrimination was at last coming to an end. If one fought together for freedom then it was only reasonable to believe that one could also live together in freedom afterwards.
In 1942 General Smuts told the institute of Race Relations that he saw white and Black as fellow South Africans. The threat of the Japanese who had by now entered the war with an attack on Pearl Habour further emphasised these sentiments. A spirit of Unity and optimism for the future was further encouraged when Influx control measures in the form of Pass Laws was relaxed in May 1942. this liberality was however short lived and the law was imposed a few months later when the coalition government saw that Daniel Malan's Herenigde National Party was gaining ground in what were thought to be traditional government support areas.
Yet another element now came into South African politics. In 1941 the Soviet Union was invaded by Nazi Germany and Russia became an ally. Within months a diplomatic presence was established in this country and soon there was widespread recruitment to the communist Party of South Africa. Some members even stood in Parliamentary elections in 1943. But failed to gain a single seat. the party however supported the democratic movements keeping a low profile and concentrating on the resolution of Trade and Labour disputes, they deliberately avoided confrontation at all levels.
In 1943 the ANC was drawn into supporting and funding a more militant youth wing. The Congress Youth and prominent amoung the leaders was Peter Mda, Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu and Anton Lembede. They advocated a more aggressive policy towards the attainment of democratic ideals and favoured direct confrontation with the authorities. Labour unrest was growing and confrontation by mineworkers with their employers and government came about on 12th August 1946 when 60 000 workers came out on strike. their demand was a minimum wage of 10 shillings (R1.00) a day. Government acted promptly by declaring the strike illegal, arrested JB Marks, President of the African Mineworkers Union, and 6 strikers were killed in the police confrontation.
A month later the strike was over, the consequences however were 12 dead and thousands injured, radicals detained virtually nothing gained.
The ability to protest and unite had however been learned, but would be three years before mineowners increased wages, They earned 3d (6cents) a shift. A general policy of protest at all levels started to take root. It was slow at first but soon gained momentum.
By mid 1950's a lot was happening; Baaskap Apartheid was in full momentum. The coloured people had been removed from the Common Voters Role in the Cape. Sophiatown had been subject to forced removals. The right of appeal of Non Whites against influx control was denied. Prime Minister Strydom had died and the ultimate architect of Apartheid, Hendrik Verwoerd became Prime Minister. The whole domestic structure of South Africa was rapidly changing and with this came more determined opposition. In 1959 the Pan African Congress was formed in opposition to the Radical socialist attitudes and policy of the ANC. Their goal was a non racial South Africa but this brought about rivalry for the leadership of Black resistance to Apartheid.
The turning point in Black Liberation politics came when the PAC under Robert Sobukwe which had broken away from the ANC organised a mass protest against the pass laws. In this dramatic and dire confrontation with the police at Sharpville, a suburb close to Johannesburg on 21st March 1960, 69 people were ruthlessly shot and killed as well as hundreds injured. A state of emergency was declared by the government with the ANC and the PAC banned. Most black leaders fled into exile. South Africa was widely condemned in the new media of the world and particularly in the United Nations International pressure against South Africa would now be remorselessly maintained until free elections were made possible. Their goal would not be attained for more than 30 years.
The Apartheid policy of the National Party achieved at last one of its idealistic goals, a carry over of resentment from the Anglo Boer War, that of cutting traditional ties with Britain and the Commonwealth. In 1961 after a whites only referendum, a Republic was declared and this country left the commonwealth of Nations. Isolation, politically, culturally and economically damaged the very structure of the nation. But at the same time a reaction to isolation led to domestic industrialisation and a desire to be independent of world markets. This promoted local industry but ultimately this became self destructive. The oil boycott and isolation from sport were perhaps aspects which affected the man in the street most.
By 1961 Nelson Mandela as a last resort proposed the armed struggle. Sabotage began as did the season of Treason Trials. Guerilla training started with the establishment of Unkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) and with the underground struggle came and escalation of police and security force activity.
A low key civil war for independence had begun and once started it gained momentum. Support from abroad provided bases for training as well as funds for the purchase for weapons and aid for widespread anti South African Activities.
In 1962 Nelson Mandela was arrested when he returned from training in Algeria and a year later the now famous swoop on the ANC headquarters in Rivonia took place. Most of the leadership was arrested and this led to the Rivonia Treason Trial in 1963 with the effective imprisonment for life of Nelson Mandela and 8 other leaders of the ANC and PAC on Robben Island, the notorious penal settlement in Table Bay.
In the same year a more permanent fort was erected on the hill overlloking the Baakens river and named Fort Frederick in honour of the HRH The Duke of York. There was a garrison of about 300 who were housed nearby and the other structures built included a magazine for military stores, a bakehouse, hospital and a smiths and carpenters shop.
Port Elizabeth. as a town was only due to come into existence 20 years later in 1819, just before the arrival of the 1820 settlers
In 1799 during the Napoleonic wars, the French man of war La Preneuse, had an exchange of gunfire with HMS Comet and HMS Rattlesnake, the only "battle" ever to take place in Algoa Bay.
When the colony was ceded to Holland by the British in 1801, in terms of the Peace of Amies, Governor Jansens stationed 150 men of the Waldeck Regiment at Fort Frederick under the command of Captain Lodewyk. A further change was soon to come, in 1806 with the resumption of the Napoleonic wars, Britain repossessed the colony and captain Cuyler was sent from Cape Town to take over the Fort.
At the same time Captain Francis Evatt arrived with the 21st Dragoons and remained there until he took command of the fort with Col Cuyler was appointed Landrost of Uitenhage in 1818. Capt Evatt was to plan an important role in assisting with the arrival of the 1820 settlers.
The arrival of the 1820 settlers established the importance of Port Elizabeth as a costal port and initiated the growth of the town towards city status a few years later.
SIR RUFANE SHAW DONKIN KCB
1772 - 1841
Was acting governor of the Cape Colony for two years during the absence of Lord Charles Somerset in 1820- 1821. He is best known for his friendly and efficient assistance to the 1820 settlers when they arrived in Algoa Bay. And also for the naming of Port Elizabeth after his recently deceased wife.
Sir Rufane was born in Ireland in 1771, the eldest of three children of General Robert Donkin and his wife Mary. He was educated at Westminister School and Cambridge University. He joined his fathers regiment The 11th Foot and served in the West Indies in 1794 and was wounded and captured during the expedition to Ostend in 1798. From 1799 to 1804 he returned to Sicily where he served with the Quartermasters staff and was promoted to Major General in 1811. In 1815 he was appointed to Madras where he commanded the 2nd Field Division of the army under the Marquis of Hastings in the operations against the Mahrattas.
Before leaving for India he had, on 1st May 1815, married Elizabeth Markham, daughter of the Dean of York. Their son David was born on 24th December 1817 and shortly after on 21st August 1818, she died of fever at Meerut. Grief Stricken and ill Sir Rufane was invalided home. but during a brief stop over in Cape Town was asked to remain as acting Governor of the Cape Colony in the absence of the Governor Lord Charles Somerset.
Sir Rufane was well liked by the Settlers and made efforts to integrate them with the local inhabitants. These actions were criticised by Somerset and his son Col Henry Somerset. After returning to England he became a member of Parliament. He remarried to Lady Anna Maria Elliot, daughter of the first Earl of Minto in 1832.
After suffering ill health for some time he committed suicide on the same day as his wife's death 21st August 1841.
THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF THE EASTERN CAPE
KHOIKOI AND KHOISAN
Ancestors of the Khoi and San often referred loosely as Bushmen and known as the Khoisan are believed to have inhabited this region about one to two million years ago. The Khoisan were stone-age hunter gatherers who lived on the coast where they fished living largely on shell fish and harvesting from the coastal bush which was well stocked with game and edible fruits. The San were hunters using stone implements as well bows and arrows with bone tips. They are also best known as the "Artists of the Rocks for the decorated the caves and shelters which they used as living sites.
THE XHOSA
It is believed that the ancestors of the Xhosa speaking people migrated down the east coast of South Africa and probably had their origins in East and Central Africa. Xhosa tradition has it that they came from a river known as Dedesi which was part of the Mzimvubu river which has its headwaters in the Drakensberg. Their founder was a mythical leader called Xhosa who some believe brought them from a more distant land. Historians however suggest that the name Xhosa comes from "Kosa". the name given to them by the KhoiKoi which means "Angry Men".History relates that the first people with whom the western navigators came into contact were the Khoikoi, and in the 18th Century they were illustrated in books by Thomas Herbert and Peter Kolbern amoungst others.
CONTACT WITH THE WEST.
Southern Africa was on the sea route to India and the first contact with Europe was with the Portuguese when Bartholomew Diaz came ashore at Bahia dos Vaqueiros, The "bay of Cowherds", present Mossel Bay, in February 1488. After taking on fresh water Diaz continued his voyage, reaching st Croix in Algoa Bay. But his crew refused to let him continue in his search for a route to India and they turned back. He erected a Cross or Padrao at Kwaaihoek and then returned, seeing for the first time Carbo da boa Esperanca and giving it the name we know today, Cape of Good Hope. There is some speculation about exactly where he landed. It is thought that it could have been Hout Bay when he called Porto Fragoso or Craggy Port where he also raised a cross. The second contact came in 1497 when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape and landed at Mossel Bay where it was recorded that gifts were exchanged with the friendly Khoikoi before continuing on his voyage where he named Natal, Terra do Natal on Christmas day, before sailing on along the east coast of Africa en route to India.
Southern Africa's first contact with the West had been made.
THE STRUGGLE FOR DEMOCRACY
The net from the North was closing in on South Africa, for all these countries were safe havens for pro-democracy movements as well as for terrorist insurgency training. The independence war in Rhodesia, hampered by the imposition of UN sanctions and isolation was assisted by the South African Government. A similar pattern to that which was also to emerge in Angola with South Africa's support for Savimbi against the Cuban / Russian backed MPLA and the civil war in Mozambique. To the north in 1980 the Lancaster House Agreement ended the prolonged Rhodesian Bush War and brought Robert Mugabe to power as president of Zimbabwe, a staunch ally of the ANC and the freedom movements.
The Botha government intensified the war on the Border with greater mobilisation. No longer was this to be Peace Keeping police responsibility all branches of the SANDF became involved.
In the Eastern Cape the unrest in the 1980's dominated the lives of those who lived in the townships and affected most of the general public as well. There were widespread and effective trade boycotts which severely affected businesses in the region, and major foreign companies, including motor manufacturers, left the country. In 1977 the Civil Rights Activist, Steve Biko had died in detention under circumstances which caused widespread public criticism and highlighted security police brutality. Activists were detained and many were ruthlessly killed despite increasing and widespread public outcry by Church leaders, academics, liberal politicians and overseas critics.
The country under siege
Operation Savannah took place in August 1975, it was an incursion into Angola to secure the Ruacana installations and pipeline to Ovamboland, a water scheme jointly developed and operated by Portugal and South Africa. With Portugal's granting of independence to Angola, the security of the project was in jeopardy. This incursion, to be the first initiative in which South African Forces were able to test a mechanised force in the African Bush highlighted the need for the improvement and modernisation of military equipment. This was also the first Mechanised operation since the end of the war in Italy in 1945 and equipment of that period was used in the operation. Savannah was a top secret operation where event the Government was not informed , it became an embarrassment when the news was broken in the overseas press, and widespread criticism forced South Africa';s withdrawal. The Operation, with its demonstration of superior military power, incidently saved Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA forces, at that time not yet fully an ally of South Africa, from being overwhelmed by MPLA forces. This event provided him with the opportunity to consolidate his support in SE Angola. The 1980's saw South Africa as perhaps the most powerful force in Africa with bases permanently established in the Border region. However world opinion and widespread condemnation of Apartheid with UN Sanctions were beginning to be effective in isolating South Africa.
Criticism of South Africa became commonplace and there was an increasing support for leaders of the Democratic movements. In 1984 Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu, outspoken critic of Apartheid was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Internal unrest was increasing and with the Declaration of a State of Emergency the government called up units of the SANDF to try and stabilise the situation. It was rapidly becoming clear that the repressive measures alone were not working. Demonstrations became more widespread with tragic consequences, such as 20 being killed at Langa in Uitenhage after a Sharpville commemoration. By 1989 Anti Apartheid demonstrations were permitted for the first time and shortly afterwards Walter Sisulu and 7 other long term political prisoners were released from Robben Island.
Negotiation and Democracy
In 1990 Nelson Mandela was released from prison and elected Deputy President of the ANC a year later the National Peace Accord was signed after the CODESA conference. The path to peace was not easy. The SACP leader Chris Hani was assassinated, resulting in widespread protest and unrest, Oliver Tambo, long term leader of the ANC died. Recognition of the process of democratisation came with the Nobel Peace Prize being awarded jointly to Nelson Mandela and FW de Klerk.In 1994 the ANC won the first democratic election with an overwhelming majority and the first Government of National Unity was formed. Nelson Mandela was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 with an international celebration at the Union Buildings in Pretoria.
The new Rainbow Nation had been born.
THE APARTHEID SOCIETY
In 1941 when the Allied forces were still at war with Germany and Italy the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and the American President Franklin D Roosevelt met secretly on the coast of New Foundland to secure guidelines for future world peace and security. Thus was born the Atlantic Charter which brought America into the world conflict. A significant clause in this agreement was " The great nations of the world would say that they could not afford assurance that all men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom of fear ... want", South Africa, then a member of the commonwealth and an ally of Britain and the United States, were now legally and morally obliged to accept the obligations of this charter. South Africa however intentionally chose to ignore the implications of the charter in terms of what they considered interference in the internal and domestic affairs and administration of South Africa. and in particular that of the non whites, for whom they felt they had sole responsibility. South West Africa at that time also came within the ambit of South African jurisdiction. The South African Government stance which repeatedly claimed that the charter had no authority, jurisdiction or mandate over Domestic Matters was a contentious difference which generations later contributed to the imposition of sanctions and international isolation of South Africa.
After the war there were great expectations for change, particularly amoungst the Black Middle Class communities and returning black and Coloured ex servicemen. There was a belief that discrimination was at last coming to an end. If one fought together for freedom then it was only reasonable to believe that one could also live together in freedom afterwards.
In 1942 General Smuts told the institute of Race Relations that he saw white and Black as fellow South Africans. The threat of the Japanese who had by now entered the war with an attack on Pearl Habour further emphasised these sentiments. A spirit of Unity and optimism for the future was further encouraged when Influx control measures in the form of Pass Laws was relaxed in May 1942. this liberality was however short lived and the law was imposed a few months later when the coalition government saw that Daniel Malan's Herenigde National Party was gaining ground in what were thought to be traditional government support areas.
Yet another element now came into South African politics. In 1941 the Soviet Union was invaded by Nazi Germany and Russia became an ally. Within months a diplomatic presence was established in this country and soon there was widespread recruitment to the communist Party of South Africa. Some members even stood in Parliamentary elections in 1943. But failed to gain a single seat. the party however supported the democratic movements keeping a low profile and concentrating on the resolution of Trade and Labour disputes, they deliberately avoided confrontation at all levels.
In 1943 the ANC was drawn into supporting and funding a more militant youth wing. The Congress Youth and prominent amoung the leaders was Peter Mda, Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu and Anton Lembede. They advocated a more aggressive policy towards the attainment of democratic ideals and favoured direct confrontation with the authorities. Labour unrest was growing and confrontation by mineworkers with their employers and government came about on 12th August 1946 when 60 000 workers came out on strike. their demand was a minimum wage of 10 shillings (R1.00) a day. Government acted promptly by declaring the strike illegal, arrested JB Marks, President of the African Mineworkers Union, and 6 strikers were killed in the police confrontation.
A month later the strike was over, the consequences however were 12 dead and thousands injured, radicals detained virtually nothing gained.
The ability to protest and unite had however been learned, but would be three years before mineowners increased wages, They earned 3d (6cents) a shift. A general policy of protest at all levels started to take root. It was slow at first but soon gained momentum.
By mid 1950's a lot was happening; Baaskap Apartheid was in full momentum. The coloured people had been removed from the Common Voters Role in the Cape. Sophiatown had been subject to forced removals. The right of appeal of Non Whites against influx control was denied. Prime Minister Strydom had died and the ultimate architect of Apartheid, Hendrik Verwoerd became Prime Minister. The whole domestic structure of South Africa was rapidly changing and with this came more determined opposition. In 1959 the Pan African Congress was formed in opposition to the Radical socialist attitudes and policy of the ANC. Their goal was a non racial South Africa but this brought about rivalry for the leadership of Black resistance to Apartheid.
The turning point in Black Liberation politics came when the PAC under Robert Sobukwe which had broken away from the ANC organised a mass protest against the pass laws. In this dramatic and dire confrontation with the police at Sharpville, a suburb close to Johannesburg on 21st March 1960, 69 people were ruthlessly shot and killed as well as hundreds injured. A state of emergency was declared by the government with the ANC and the PAC banned. Most black leaders fled into exile. South Africa was widely condemned in the new media of the world and particularly in the United Nations International pressure against South Africa would now be remorselessly maintained until free elections were made possible. Their goal would not be attained for more than 30 years.
The Apartheid policy of the National Party achieved at last one of its idealistic goals, a carry over of resentment from the Anglo Boer War, that of cutting traditional ties with Britain and the Commonwealth. In 1961 after a whites only referendum, a Republic was declared and this country left the commonwealth of Nations. Isolation, politically, culturally and economically damaged the very structure of the nation. But at the same time a reaction to isolation led to domestic industrialisation and a desire to be independent of world markets. This promoted local industry but ultimately this became self destructive. The oil boycott and isolation from sport were perhaps aspects which affected the man in the street most.
By 1961 Nelson Mandela as a last resort proposed the armed struggle. Sabotage began as did the season of Treason Trials. Guerilla training started with the establishment of Unkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) and with the underground struggle came and escalation of police and security force activity.
A low key civil war for independence had begun and once started it gained momentum. Support from abroad provided bases for training as well as funds for the purchase for weapons and aid for widespread anti South African Activities.
In 1962 Nelson Mandela was arrested when he returned from training in Algeria and a year later the now famous swoop on the ANC headquarters in Rivonia took place. Most of the leadership was arrested and this led to the Rivonia Treason Trial in 1963 with the effective imprisonment for life of Nelson Mandela and 8 other leaders of the ANC and PAC on Robben Island, the notorious penal settlement in Table Bay.
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